Dictionaries are used at home and school. They are cited in law courts, sermons, and parliament and are referred to by crossword addicts and Scrabble players alike. In addition, they are ideal textbooks for anyone interested in developing their vocabulary level and language competence generally. The dictionary is the basic reference source for teachers and learners and is now available in various forms. Learners in ESL and EFL countries particularly favor small handheld dictionaries for convenience and relatively low cost. However, hardcopy versions in book form are still largely used for classroom and personal studies worldwide. Huge resources are devoted to developing, producing, and marketing learner dictionaries, particularly by the five major British publishers that dominate the market.
The dictionary is regarded as the first authority on many aspects of language use. This is why you are often referred to it to solve your vocabulary problems. The authority the dictionary has derives from those we call lexicographers. They are those trained in the art and craft of dictionary compilation. Among these are phonologists, morphologists, semanticists, stylisticians, grammarians, orthographers, and etymologists.
The Dictionary and Information.
A modern desk dictionary is likely to provide several types of information, including the following:
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An Entry
This may be a word, a phrase, or an abbreviation. This entry is usually bold printed and provides a key for use. All the information given on an entry is called the lexical entry of that word. Our ability to use the guide is usually found at the top of the page. The word to the left gives you the first word on that page, and the one to the right gives you the last word on the page.
2. Phonology
After the word is entered, the dictionary gives you the first pronunciation information. This tells you how a word is supposed to be pronounced, and letters that a word contains are to be realized in pronunciation. In other words, some letters are to be seen but not heard. For example, in spelling the word “listen,” it would be wrong to leave out the letter “t”; your pronunciation will also be unacceptable or would sound odd if it includes the sound /t/.
Consider also the words “debtor,” “receipt,” and “soar”; your pronunciation of these words will be wrong if you realize the /b/, /p/, and /a/ respectively in your pronunciation. In addition, phonologists also tell us if some words have alternative pronunciations. In sum, phonologists, as contributors to the dictionary, give expert information on a language’s sound segments (vowels and consonants), their number, how a particular language combines them, and their pronunciation.
3. Orthography
Lexicographers, as experts, are preoccupied with the proper spelling of words. Generally, two versions of orthography are common: British and American. A lexicographer is likely to enter both and identify them.
| BRITISH | AMERICAN |
| Traveller | Traveler |
| programme | program |
| colour | color |
| tyre | tire |
| centre | centre |
For such words above, both forms are likely to occur as one entry, with one of them first. The order of the forms does not necessarily mean that one is preferred over the other; after all, one has to come first.
4. Etymology
Part of the authority that is attributable to the dictionary is also derived from the contributors, who are called etymologists. These experts trace the historical changes a word has undergone during usage. For example, when it was first used, in what context it was first encountered, and its contemporary usage. All languages change over time to meet their speech communities’ challenging contexts and needs. Language change is brought about by contact with other languages and cultures and, at times, by internal forces. Good dictionaries give information on English words that at one time had meanings quite different from their current ones. For example, “undertaker,” “astonish,” “shrewd,” and “suffer” once had meanings such as “one who undertakes a task,” “strike by thunder,” “deprived or wicked,” and “allow” as their earlier meanings, respectively.
5. Grammar
Grammarians of whatever persuasion are also contributors to the dictionary. They state the rules of grammar, that is, the dos and don’ts of grammar. Grammarians are interested in parts of speech and other grammatical information such as gender, number, plurality, sense relations, and degree of comparison. In other words, the dictionary informs the reader whether a noun is masculine or feminine, whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, and whether it takes a direct object. Concerning comparison information, for example, the comparative and superlative forms of “bad” will be provided as “worse” and “worst,” respectively. In terms of information on plurality, the dictionary will tell you that the plural form of “mouse” is “mice” and not “mouses.” In many dictionaries, the definitions or senses of words are labeled by numbers. You should check the different senses of a word until you get the most appropriate definition for your needs. The major problem for lexicographers is how far to define a word’s meaning without compromising accuracy.
6. Collocation.
Collocation is how words combine in a language to produce natural-sounding speech and writing. Collocation is an essential feature of the language, and good learners’ dictionaries give as much help as they can with usage. Modern dictionaries are increasingly giving much attention to collocation. A good way to improve your collocation competence is to learn vocabulary items not in isolation or individually. Still, along with words that they can use, that is their collocates. For example, the noun “blood” can combine with “lose,” “draw,” “donate,” “clot,” “dried,” “pool of,” “drop of,” “trickle of,” “test,” “call,” and “sample.” Though the full range of the words may not be given, such an example provides a basis for learners to try and build up their examples, starting from words they already know. Well-established idiomatic expressions are often included in the dictionary under this section.
7. Examples and Illustrations
The dictionary definition, where necessary, is followed by a typical example, usually in italics. Examples in dictionaries are necessary because it is easier to remember and understand the word within the context of use. In addition, they provide models for students and learners to remember and produce. Consider the entry “compliment” in The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (p. 314). The word “compliment” has nine examples. Some of these examples are: “fish for compliment,” “take something as a compliment,” “return the compliment,” and “the compliments of the season.”
8. Regional/Register Labels
Variations in usage do occur to suit different purposes and different kinds of situations. This means varieties can be identified within Standard English. This does not mean one is better than others, but one may be more appropriate. Standard dictionaries, therefore, provide labels indicating the context in which such words are being used. Regional labels are preceded by such terms as British (BrE), American (AmE), Australian (AusE), Canadian (CanE), Greek (Gk), and such labels as informal (inf), slang (slg), and literary (lit). Formal English is used in writing books, quality magazines, and official statements. Informal English is more popular, more familiar, and generally associated with speech.
Types of Dictionary
Dictionaries can generally be categorized into three:
i. Monolingual or Language Dictionaries
These are dictionaries written in particular languages. Examples of monolingual dictionaries are the Dictionary of the English Language, the Dictionary of the French Language, the Dictionary of the German Language, and the Dictionary of the Yoruba Language. Most major languages with well-developed orthographic systems have dictionaries written in them.
ii. Subject or Specialized Dictionaries
These are dictionaries written according to subjects or particular disciplines. Examples of this dictionary category are the Dictionary of Chemistry, Dictionary of Economics, Dictionary of Genetics, Dictionary of Nursing, Dictionary of Slang, and Dictionary of Idioms. Almost any group with its own words to describe what they think or do can have their dictionary. If you need to know if there is a specialized dictionary for your field, all you need to do is consult the reference librarian of your library.
iii. Bilingual Dictionary.
Bilingual dictionaries are also referred to as translation dictionaries. As the name suggests, these are dictionaries written in two languages. Meanwhile, monolingual dictionaries promote fluency in spoken English, while bilingual or translation dictionaries tend to provide single-word translation equivalents. These equivalents do have the problem of not fitting exactly into the real context of the target language. Examples of bilingual dictionaries are Hausa-English, English-French, German-English, and Spanish-English dictionaries.
iv. Electronic Dictionary
Thanks to technological advancements, modern computers now have dictionaries installed to assist users in checking their spelling accuracy. Online dictionaries, as they are called, provide quick and efficient access.
