Function words are classified into different categories: determiners, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, coordinators, and subordinators.
Determiners
Determiners are function words used to specify the kind of reference a noun has. Determiners usually precede nouns and are used to help classify the meaning of the nouns. The most important determiners are the following:
1. The Definite Article:
This shows that the referent (whatever is referred to) is assumed to be known by the speaker and the person being spoken to, e.g., the car
2. The Indefinite Article:
A or an indicates that the referent is one and an unknown entity, e.g., a man.
3. Demonstrative Determiners:
These indicate that the referents are near to or away from the speaker’s immediate context, e.g., this man or that man.
4. Possessive Determiners:
They tell us who or what the noun belongs to, e.g., my house, their book.
5. Quantitative Determiners:
They specify how many or how much of the noun there is, e.g., every house, many houses.
Pronouns
A pronoun fills the position of a noun or a whole phrase and can be seen as an economy device. The reference of a pronoun is usually made clear by the context. Pronouns take virtually no modifiers. In particular, they cannot be modified by the definite or indefinite article.
1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to the speaker, the person who is addressed, and other entities. Personal pronouns are used more frequently than other classes of pronouns. They have different forms according to the following:
(a) Number: singular, plural, e.g., I, we
(b) Person: first person, second person, third person
2. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns can also be regarded as an alternative to the pronoun it. They often refer to entities in the context, either in the neighboring part of the text or the external situation. Demonstrative pronouns contrast in terms of singular (this, that) and plural (these, those). Demonstrative pronouns are much less frequent than personal pronouns.
3. Reflexive Pronouns
These refer back to a previous noun phrase, usually the subject of the clause. Reflexive pronouns end with –self in the singular and –selves in the plural. Each personal pronoun has an equivalent reflexive pronoun. Only you have two reflexive forms: yourself and yourselves.
4. Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns, like reflexive ones, refer to a previous noun phrase and indicate that there is a mutual relationship between two or more parties. Each other and one another are the two examples in English. Each other is, however, far more common than one another.
- They write to each other regularly.
- Theirs is a large family, but they get on well with one another.
5. Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns such as mine and yours are similar to possessive determiners such as my, your, and his, but different in that they constitute whole noun phrases. Possessive pronouns are usually used when the noun is recoverable from the preceding context. Examples of possessive pronouns include hers, mine, his, yours, and its.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns have a broad, indefinite meaning and are classifiable into three main groups. These are:
- Compound pronouns with personal reference: e.g everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, anybody, anyone
- Neuter pronouns: e.g., everything, something, anything, nothing.
- Qualifiers: e.g., some, all, many.
- Pronouns with ‘one’: e.g., one, no one (usually spelled as two words, although the hyphenated version no-one also occurs).
- Somebody is at the door.
- We need someone to help us out.
- Nothing has been ruled out.
Sometimes pronouns occur uniquely with other qualifiers. These indefinite pronouns occur with the item else, e.g., nobody else, somebody else, someone else, and no one else.
Prepositions
Prepositions are function words that introduce prepositional phrases. The prepositional phrase complement following a preposition is generally a noun phrase. Thus, prepositions can also be seen as linking words that connect other structures with noun phrases. Prepositions can be regarded as either simple or complex. Simple prepositions are invariable in form, e.g., after, around, through, by, from, onto, like, with, down, for. Another set of prepositions consists of multiple-word units known as complex prepositions. The meaning of complex prepositions is derivable from the meaning of the parts. Two-word complex prepositions normally end with a simple preposition. Examples of two-word prepositions include: such as, as for, apart from, due to, because of, out of. Three-word prepositions usually have the structure: of simple preposition + noun + simple preposition. Examples are: by means of, on account of, as far as, as well as, in spite of, on top of, etc.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliaries are divisible into two kinds: primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries. Auxiliary verbs are so called because they are added to the main verbs to help convey their meaning. They usually precede the main or lexical verbs, e.g., may come, must wait, might have. Some common auxiliary verbs have contracted forms such as ‘s, ‘re, ‘ll, ‘ve, ‘d, etc., and are used especially in speech.
Primary Auxiliaries
There are three primary auxiliaries: BE, HAVE, and DO. The same verbs sometimes act as main verbs.
Uses of primary auxiliaries:
The auxiliary HAVE is used to form the perfective aspect:
They have achieved their aim
- The auxiliary BE is used to form the progressive aspect:
- He was getting set to leave.
- The auxiliary BE is also used for the passive voice:
- It was delivered immediately.
- The auxiliary DO is used in negative statements and in questions:
- Did he tell you what happened?
- Jane does not know the venue of the meeting.
Modal Auxiliaries
There are nine modal auxiliary verbs. The primary function of modal auxiliaries is to express modality such as obligation, possibility, and prediction. The modals are: will, can, shall, may, must, would, should, might, and could.
Conclusion
This chapter has not attempted an exhaustive account of lexical and function words in English. It has focused on drawing attention to the categories of these words. It should be noted that mistakes that learners of English make with these words may not necessarily be related to these major functions of words alone, but more so to the characteristics that they display in context, in addition to our carelessness. To avoid both lexical and grammatical errors, learners need to exercise greater care when they speak and write.
